Precision Worldwide - 1622 Words

Precision Worldwide, Inc. Case Study Case Study Background: Precision Worldwide, Inc. (PWI) manufactures industrial machines and equipment for sale in numerous countries. Repair and replacement parts account for a substantial part of the company’s business. The replacement part in question, steel rings, occur in the machines manufactured only in PWI’s Frankfurt Germany plant, but can also be used on some competitor’s machines. The steel ring manufactured by PWI has an average normal life of about 2 months. Machines require between 2 and 6 rings to operate. Individual rings are replaced as they wear out. Over the years, competition had increased and now a competitor company, the French firm Henri Poulenc, has entered the market with a†¦show more content†¦For this analysis purpose, if we consider that PWI is going to stop making steel rings, the cost of materials already bought is a ‘sunk cost’ to the extent that it exceeds what the materials are now worth if sold or held for fu ture use. For 100 Steel Rings: Cost of Material (Sunk Cost): (321.90) Cost of Labor (100% labor charge): 196.50 Cost of overhead: 157.2 Total cost – Sunk cost: 675.6 – 321.9 = $353.7 Unit cost of Steel Ring (with Material cost as Sunk): 353.70 / 100 = $3.54 Table 3: Relevant cost from Table A of case study supplied by cost accounting department of PWI with steel ring Labor costs at the 70% of regular wages during slack period and, steel ring material costs included as a sunk cost, administrative overhead cost removed, and departmental overhead cost reduced. For 100 Steel Rings: Cost of material (Sunk Cost): (321.9) Cost of Labor (70% of regular labor charge): $137.55 Cost of overhead: $157.2 Total Cost – Sunk Cost = $294.75 Unit cost of Steel Ring (with Material cost as sunk cost and labor charges reduced to 70%): $294.75 / 100 = $2.95 6) Table 4: The effect of Plastic Ring versus Steel Ring Lifespan. Assume a company called ‘A’, needs 6 rings to operate the machine Life Span of Steel Ring: 2 Months; In 16 months, they replaceShow MoreRelatedPrecision Worldwide1110 Words   |  5 PagesPrecision Worldwide Inc. Precision Worldwide, Inc. (PWI) has a plant located in Germany which manufactures industrial machines, equipment and replacement parts for sale in numerous countries. Repair and replacement parts, which accounted for a substantial part of the company’s business is now facing a dilemma, a new competitor has entered the market with a replacement part, a plastic ring, which PWI had in the past used a special steel to produce. During a meeting with the general manager, HansRead MorePrecision Worldwide1583 Words   |  7 PagesExecutive Summary Precision Worldwide,Inc (PWI) is a manufacturing company of industrial machines and equipment for almost 90 years. One of their plants located in Frankfurt, Germany, produces a particular model at a price ranging from $ 18,900 to $ 28,900. Moreover, the plant has another department that manufactures steel retaining rings. These rings are considered as an integrate parts of the machines they are actually manufactured. This department can sell their rings either internally or externallyRead MorePrecision Worldwide, Inc1239 Words   |  5 PagesCASE WRITE-UPS: â€Å"Precision Worldwide, Inc.† When a competitor develops and introduces a superior product, that is less costly to manufacture and even many times usable and durable, Hans Thorborg, the general manager of the German plant of Precision Worldwide, Inc.(PWI), and his team have to decide to math the competitor’s product. When to do so, how to price or what sustainable competitive advantage they need to adopt during the next strategic period, given that they hold a large inventory, whichRead MorePrecision Worldwide, Inc1726 Words   |  7 PagesPrecision Worldwide, Inc. Introduction When a competitor develops and introduces a superior product that is less costly to manufacture and even many times usable and durable, the key to people at Precision Worldwide must decide whether to match the competitors product, when to do so, how to price or what sustainable competitive advantage it needs to adopt during the next strategic period, given that it holds a large inventory of its now inferior product. This issue concerns the steel and plasticRead MoreBUS5431 Case 1 Precisions Worldwide Essay752 Words   |  4 Pagesï » ¿ Harvard Business Case 1 - Precision World Wide, Inc. Managerial Accounting BUS5431, Spring 2015 What action should Hans Thorborg take? Why? Hans Thorborg is the general manager of a manufacturing firm, Precision Worldwide, Inc., which produces steel rings for various domestic and international companies. Recently there has been a shift in the market to a new product, a ring made of plastic rather than steel. The new product is of a higher quality in regard to consumer concernsRead MorePrecision Worldwide, Inc Havard Case Study Essay examples1033 Words   |  5 PagesSUBJECT: Precision Worldwide, Inc. RECOMMENDATION: My recommendation for Precision Worldwide, Inc. (PWI) is to immediately stop the production of steel rings. PWI then needs to sell the remaining steel rings to at least recoup some of their initial investment. In the meantime they should start producing, selling, and distributing plastic rings to their entire market of customers while attracting new customers who may prefer this new option. CONCLUSION: By changing their production offering toRead MoreEssay on History of Fender ® Musical Instruments Corporation937 Words   |  4 Pagesillustrious history dating back to 1946, Fender has touched and transformed music worldwide and in nearly every genre: rock ‘n roll, country and western, jazz, rhythm and blues and many others. Everyone from beginners and hobbyists to the worlds most acclaimed artists and performers have used Fender instruments and amps, and legendary Fender instruments such as the Telecaster ® and Stratocaster ® guitars and Precision ® and Jazz ® bass guitars are universally acclaimed as design classics. In the 1940sRead MorePrecision642 Words   |  3 PagesPrecision Worldwide,Inc (PWI) Precision Worldwide,Inc (PWI) is a manufacturing company of industrial machines and equipment for almost 90 years. One of their plants located in Frankfurt, Germany, produces a particular model at a price ranging from $ 18,900 to $ 28,900. Moreover, the plant has another department that manufactures steel retaining rings. These rings are considered as an integrate part of the machines they are actually manufacturing. This department can sell their rings eitherRead MoreColgate Palmolive Toothbrush Case Study1303 Words   |  6 Pagess new toothbrush, Precision, and choose the one that is the most suitable in the face of the market competition and consumer needs. The report also aims to make recommendations for the positioning, branding, communication and promotion of the product under the chosen strategy. Situation Analysis Company: In 1991, CP held 43% of the world toothpaste market and 16% of the world toothbrush market. Other oral care products included dental floss and mo uth rinses. In 1991, worldwide sales of CP s oralRead MoreAccounting781 Words   |  4 PagesSince Henri Poulenc, the competitor of Precision Worldwide, only influences 10% of the market share worldwide. As mentioned the new plastic rings would not be produced by any company other than Henri Poulenc for some time. Financials aside, knowing this information would negate the urgency made by sales manager, Gerhard Henk, who commented that if customers found out plastic rings were sold elsewhere then it would be detrimental the sales of Precision Worldwide machines – which are many times the print

Comparing Meso And South American Mythology - 889 Words

In Meso and South American mythology, Jaguars were both admired and feared and often extensively integrated into stories and religious traditions and rituals. Shamans of this area that were believed to be able to take the form of these large predators, known as â€Å"were-jaguars,† were feared due to their ability to make contact with dangerous spirits and other harmful forces, which had a profound impact on Mesoamerican beliefs. Due to Jaguars being the most powerful and aggressive predator to inhabit these areas, they were additionally associated with fertility, royalty, the Earth, and even included in myths of creation and cataclysms. The Mayans even believed the sun god, Ahau Kin, would become the Jaguar god while he spent time in the Underworld during the time between the sunset and sunrise. The Aztec calendar depicts the cosmology of the world by illustrating different stages, events and destinies of both individuals, society, and the world that either occurred in the past or will occur in the future. Additionally, this calendar was also used to count the years and ran parallel with the solar year. The calendar comprised of 260 days that were divided into 20 weeks, each of which was controlled by a specific deity, with each day having its own assigned god or goddess. Furthermore, the Aztec calendar displays principal elements of the fifth creation, which justifies war and sacrifice, and illustrates the belief that sacrifices were necessary to nourish the gods. It is

Age Related Changes That Occur in the Cardiovascular System Free Essays

Age Related Changes that Occur in the Cardiovascular System Age Related Changes that Occur in the Cardiovascular System In the normal conduction of the heart the electrical impulse starts in the SA node, also called the pacemaker of the heart. The electrical impulse travels through the right atrium and through the Bachmann’s bundle into the left atrium. This stimulates the atria to contract. We will write a custom essay sample on Age Related Changes That Occur in the Cardiovascular System or any similar topic only for you Order Now Next the signal travel to the AV node. The AV node slightly delays the signal. This delay is needed for the heart to beat properly. The Cardiovascular System iframe class="wp-embedded-content" sandbox="allow-scripts" security="restricted" style="position: absolute; clip: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px);" src="https://phdessay.com/the-cardiovascular-system-intrinsic-conduction-system/embed/#?secret=ut1rhQbsSH" data-secret="ut1rhQbsSH" width="500" height="282" title="#8220;The Cardiovascular System#8221; #8212; Free Essays - PhDessay.com" frameborder="0" marginwidth="0" marginheight="0" scrolling="no"/iframe Without this delay the atria and ventricles would beat at the same time. The electrical signal then travels to the Bundle of His where it is split into the signals going to the right and left ventricle. The signal travels through the left and the right Bundle Branch to contract the ventricles. As the body ages there are changes in the cardiovascular system. Some of these changes include major changes in heart rate, blood vessels become more stiff and thicker, heart valves become thicker and more stiff, the SA node loses cells and developes fibrous tissue. One major change is the decrease in the elasticity of the aorta and great arteries. The normal aorta allows for normal expansion during systole. Left ventricular ejection creates a pressure wave which travels the length of the aorta to the periphery. The pulse generated at a peripheral vessel is the result of this pressure wave and is not a reflection of blood flow. The velocity of the pressure wave is termed the pulse wave velocity. Age-related aortic stiffening causes an increase in the pulse wave velocity. The wave velocity in the elderly results in an elevation in the systolic blood pressure. The pulse wave is faster resulting in the reflected wave reaching the ascending aorta in the late systole rather than early diastole. Coronary artery disease also called CAD is the leading cause of death in both men and women. CAD is the leading type of heart disease in the United States. CAD is the hardening and build up of plaque inside the arteries that supply the heart with blood. The main part of plaque is cholesterol followed by other minerals. This type of build up is called atherosclerosis. As this grows it occludes the arteries which in turn decreases the amount of oxygen reaching the heart. This can lear to chest pain and heart attacks. The risk of CAD increases with age. 37% of people in the age range of 65-74 years old and 48% of those over the age of 75 (REF 1) reported having this type of illness. In the 75 years and over, more than one third of men and approximately one quarter of women are currently living with coronary artery disease. Hypertension is more common in the 60 and over range. Hypertension is define as a blood pressure of 140/90 or greater. Hypertension is related to the loss of elasticity in the aorta. Blood pressure mainly systolic pressure rises with age. In a community based study 90% of midlife adults with normal blood pressure developed hypertension in late life. (Ref 2) Arrhythmia is an abnormal heart beat. It’s more common in the aging adult. Arrhythmias occur when the electrical signals on the heart are not working correctly and making the heart beat in irregular rhythm. Many different things can lead to arrhythmias. Cardiac arrhythmias can be caused by a heart attack, scarring from prior heart attack, blocked arteries (CAD), hypertension, changes to your heart’s structure, such as from cardiomyopathy. Most common arrhythmias in the elderly are tachycardia and bradycardia. Tachycardia is a heart rate greater than 100 beats per minute and bradycardia is less than 60 beats per minute. Tachycardia is most commonly caused by age-related deterioration of the heart or an underlying medical condition. It is a disruption of the normal electrical signal. Bradycardia is caused by changes to the heart related to aging. It is also a disruption of the normal electrical signal. Congestive heart failure (CHF) is a condition caused by the weakening of the heart and the cardiovascular system. It develops when the heart is not able to pump enough blood. Some causes of CHF would include, narrowed arteries that supply blood to the heart muscle – coronary artery disease, past heart attack, or myocardial infarction, with scar tissue that interferes with the heart muscle’s normal work, high blood pressure, heart valve disease, primary disease of the heart muscle itself, called cardiomyopathy. High blood pressure is the leading cause of CHF in the elderly. High blood bressure put high demands on the heart to pump blood. This prolonged demand weakens the heart muscle over time. The heart doesn’t pump as efficiently as it should, the blood slows down and less blood is pumped. The blood returning to the heart backs up in the veins forcing fluid from the blood vessels into tissues of the feet and legs. The swelling that results is call â€Å"edema†. Bibliography Medline Plus, Aging changes in the heart and blood vessels, Retrieved April 1, 2013 From http://www. nlm. nih. gov/medlineplus/ency/article/004006. htm Jenkins, Kemnitz, Tortora (2010) Anatomy and Physiology From Science to Life Danvers, MA: John Wiley and Sons Inc Pat Joiner-Myers, Mosby’s Dictionary of Medicine, Nursing and Health Professions 8th Edition Medscape, Cardiovascular Physiology- Changes With Aging , Retrieved April 1, 2013 From http://www. medscape. com/viewarticle/450564_2 References 1. Office for National Statistics: General Lifestyle Survey (2007) www. statistics. gov. uk/statbase/product. asp? vlnk=5756 2. Vasan RS, Beiser A, Seshadri S et al. Residual lifetime risk for developing hypertension in middle-aged women and men. JAMA 287, 1003–1010 (2002). How to cite Age Related Changes That Occur in the Cardiovascular System, Papers

Teaching and Learning Multiliteracies

Question: Discuss about the Teaching and Learning Multiliteracies. Answer: Introduction: The term multiliteracies had been coined in 1996 by the New London Group and this term could be referred as the multimodal ways of communication which also includes the abilities of students in educational system for understating multimedia and technology (Willis, 2009). The basic goal of multiliteracies in an education system is to utilise multimodal communication system considering various different languages within different cultures and also to utilise the abilities of students for understanding multimedia and technology considering audio, symbols, video, emails and others so that uniform knowledge buildup and growth could be ensured (Victoria State Government, 2009). In the conventional education system it was a significant challenge for teaches to help students for achieving a sustainable literacy development through the schooling period so that stronger literacy skills could be achieved (Mills, 2008). Subsequently utilising this implication with the conventional education syst em the New London Group developed the concept of multiliteracies in which technology-enhanced tools of education could be adopted for students so that they could enhance their literacy skills and knowledge with better convenience and efficiency. It is a matter of debate that how multiliteracies could be utilised by teaches within education system for ensuring better literacy development of all students. Hence, it should be mentioned here that there are four major components of multiliteracies which could be the main factors for teachers within educational systems for assisting every students with their literacy development and these factors are situated practice, overt instruction, critical framing and transformed actions (Mills, 2008). Functions of each of these components of multiliteracies have been discussed below, Situated Practice The main function of situated practice in multiliteracies is to guide the students for integrating their primary knowledge so that they could take the initial approach towards meaningful learning practices (Ansty Bull, 2006). Overt Instruction This component of multiliteracies could be effectively utilised by teachers for guiding the students for coordinating with newer educational tools and techniques with systematic practice of learning techniques so that better literacy development could be ensured through proper utilisation of the technology-enhanced tools and techniques of learning (Sandretto Tilson, 2013). Critical Framing The critical framing element in multiliteracies could be effectively utilised by teaches for encouraging the students to question about diverse perceptions so that better learning experiences could be gained from diverse aspects of literacy according to diversified questions of students (Victoria State Government, 2009). Transformed Actions This component of multiliteracies could be effectively utilised by educators within educational system for generating interest among the students for applying the learnt lessons from the former three components in their real; life activities and situations so that literacy development could be ensured through practical application of knowledge (Willis, 2009). Transformed Practices or Actions It has been mentioned in the former section of this report that transformed practices is one of the four components of multiliteracies and it is one of the most unique component of this newer educational concept as well. It could be an effective factor for encouraging the practices among students for linking their learning experiences within their regular life class room and personal life activities (Sandretto Tilson, 2013). The basic concept of transformed practices in multiliteracies is to encourage the approaches of students for applying their learnt lessons from technology-enhanced system based theoretical classes into real life aspects and situations so that practical lessons could make better contribution to their individual literacy development (Ansty Bull, 2006). It is a universally agreed fact that practical application of knowledge, reasoning power and logical abilities is the most effective way for enhancing the knowledge development process of an individual and it is also effective for encouraging self learning practices in people as well (Allan, 2013). Hence, it is very obvious that the approach of transformed practices in multiliteracies is effective for motivating students to apply their learnt lessons in real life activities so that they could build the path for their literacy development depending on their own self-learning approaches (Willis, 2009). Now it should be mentioned that how teaches could play a role for utilising transformed practices within an educational system for contributing to the better knowledge development of the students. The way in which an educator could encourage students with the approach of transformed practices within an educational system is to engage them in reciprocal conversations among each other so t hat ideas and knowledge could be shared from one cultural situation to another (Allan, 2013). Transformed practices in multiliteracies is considered to be the most meaningful and effective learning practice which design the future of the society through encouraging the next generations for applying their learnt lessons in their social lives (Wright et al 2013). Benefits of multiliteracies approach for assisting all students to value diversity It is said that a childhood is the most fertile state of brain for learning the basic knowledge and principles of life and it is also said that a child brain is also highly vulnerable to be influenced by misperceptions as well. Hence, it is very obvious that the education system available to children is the base for the development of their morals, principles, knowledge and logical abilities (Victoria State Government, 2009). The most significant advantages of multiliteracies approach in education system for assisting all students to value diversity have been discussed below according to different elements of multiliteracies. First of all transformed practices in multiliteracies encourages the students for being engaged in reciprocal conversation within classroom or society with different cultural people having different literacy perception (Sandretto Tilson, 2013). Thus, knowledge sharing through interaction with different cultural people depending on transformed practices could be effectively helpful for keeping students away from conventional thoughts about other cultural people. Moreover, it could also make them realise the value of diversity as a significant need for knowledge development and sharing (Allan, 2013). On the other hand, critical framing in multiliteracies is also effectively helpful for encouraging learning interest among students through motivating their practices for uttering questions from diverse perception so that answers could enrich the literacy of all within a classroom. Hence, better application of diversity of perception in multiliteracies for better literacy development of the students could also enhance the value of diversity to them (Wright et al 2013). Literacies and literate practices are important in every sphere of life. It is important to mention that most of the individuals learn a lot of from their daily lives not only at home but also at their work and hence taking into consideration the literate practices applied at workplace and home is an important aspect. People behave differently at work and home which are highly distinct in their contexts and hence it could be said that most of the individuals apply different literacy practices in different ways at home and at work because they understand the importance of these places and also understand that their behavior will reflect on their literacy effectively. From the social point of view literacy is the way people use their written skills in their personal lives and from the point of view of business literacy is written skills which helps people to develop their organisational situation which helps to understand the organisational objectives and allows meeting them (Wright et al., 2013). In both the situations literacy practices are considered as the observable episodes which reflect on the literacy practices learned by people during their education. In professional and personal life literacy practices is extremely important. From the personal point of view there are different Literacies which are important at work as well as at home. One of the key examples of literacy practice implemented at work is written skills and IT literacy skills for developing presentation and effective written communication which helps to convey important messages at work. Overall it could be said that the combination of writing and reading literacy skills is extremely important for me at work. On the other hand literacy practices at home could also be considered as personal literacy practice and hence understanding of the different social media applications and their involvement in the daily lives have become highly important as most of the people like to be active in Facebook, Twitter an d other applications effectively (Willis, 2009). My literacy practices of teaching my nephew and niece through e-books and tablet devices have been effective for me to develop my personal literacy skills. References Allan, L. (2013). Leaders in educational thought [Video file]. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RgciQLj-57k Ansty, M., Bull, G. (2006). Defining multiliteracies. In Teaching and learning multiliteracies: Changing times, changing literacies. Retrieved from https://engres.ied.edu.hk/lang_arts/tasks/curricRenew-2009/wk1/MultiliteraciesCh2AntesynBull.pdf Mills, K. A. (2008). Transformed practice in a pedagogy of multiliteracies. Pedagogies: An International Journal, 3(2), 109128. Sandretto, S., Tilson, J. (2013). Reconceptualising literacy: Critical multiliteracies for 'new times'. Retrieved from https://www.tlri.org.nz/sites/default/files/projects/Sandretto_Summary_final_1.pdf Victoria State Government, Department of Education and Early Childhood Development (DEECD). (2009). Key characteristics of effective literacy teaching P6: Differentiating support for all students. Retrieved from https://www.agtv.vic.edu.au/files/Website%202015/keycharliteracyp6.pdf Willis, L.-D. (2009). A multiliteracies project in the middle school: Parents as coteachers. In 2009 AATE/ALEA National Conference: Bridging Divides: Ensuring access, equity and quality in literacy and English education, 912 July, Wrest Point Conference Centre, Hobart. Retrieved from https://espace.library.uq.edu.au/eserv/UQ:319714/UQ319714_fulltext.pdf Wright, S., Fugett, A., Caputa, F. (2013). Using e-readers and internet resources to support comprehension. Journal of Educational Technology Society, 16(1), 367379. Document: Assessment 4 Chart: Multiple Literacies and Literate Practices in the Different Contexts of Your Life (Word document)

Times Arrow, Times Cycle ( Stephen Jay Gould ) free essay sample

Reviews work on evolution of geologists understanding of the concept of deep time in 17th Cent.-19th Cent. In Times Arrow, Times Cycle, Stephen Jay Gould discusses the evolution of geologists understanding of the concept of deep time. Gould studied texts by Thomas Burnet, James Hutton, and Charles Lyellthree scientific writers who approached this question in the seventeenth, eighteenth, and nineteenth centuries. Traditionally, readings of these three writers tended to focus on the degree to which each man employed the scientific method in investigating the question of the Earths age. The greater the scientists dependence on scientific method, the historians reasoned, the closer he came to the truth. Thus, these scientists have often been ranked, and understood, on the basis of their adherence to standards that are familiar to the twentieth century, but were still evolving when they wrote. In the course of his repeated close readings of the texts, in which. We will write a custom essay sample on Times Arrow, Times Cycle ( Stephen Jay Gould ) or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page .

Epistemic Closure Essays

Epistemic Closure Essays Epistemic Closure Essay Epistemic Closure Essay Essay Topic: Rene Descartes In this essay I am traveling to analyse the rule of epistemological closing and so I will look at the counterexamples. proposed by by Fred Dretsky and Jonathan Vogel. I will analyze and come to a decision whether their statements are converting and what responces there are to their counterexamples. In general epistemology is a  «branch of doctrine that is directed towards theories of beginnings. nature and bounds of knowledge »1. Rene Descartes’ celebrated treatise  «Meditations on First Philosophy » will besides be discussed in relation to the Cartesian Method of Doubt. which is mostly based on the closing rule. Rene Descartes’ chief purpose was to do people get down doubting the things which they ab initio saw as granted. He wanted to take people to get down establishing their cognition That’s why in the First Meditation this he turned to planetary agnosticism. and claimed  «I am traveling to follow my method. so. I shall hold to suspend opinion about everything I used to believe2 » . This way of believing leads Descartes to the decision that he can be certain merely about the being of himself ( the celebrated  «cogito ergo sum » comes here ) . and besides he can be certain about the being of God. hence. so the stuff universe exists. as God is non lead oning a priori. As we can see Descartes made usage of the closing rule. the simple signifier of which says that if Person A knows x . and x entails y . and S knows that x entails y . so Person S knows Y. In instance of Descartes. he claims that he knows that God exists. and the being of God implies the being of material universe ( as God is non a prevaricator to lead on us ) . he knows that God is non a prevaricator and will non lead on us. hence he knows that the material universe exists. This proposition is more frequently called ASA ( anti-skeptical statement ) . Another illustration of this is given by Tim Black3. he proposed the undermentioned logical proposition: ( 1 ) If I know that I have custodies. and if I know that my holding custodies entails that I am non a brain-in-a-vat. so I know that I am non a brain-in-a-vat. ( 2 ) I know that my holding custodies entails that I am non a brain-in-a-vat. ( 3 ) I know that I have custodies. Therefore. ( 4 ) I know that Im non a brain-in-a-vat. However. here the disbelieving mystifier begins. as it is impossible to cognize whether I am non a encephalon in a vat . So the first 3 premises are independently plausible. but they support the decision ( 4 ) . which is non plausible. Keith DeRose4 offers us to see the alleged Abominable Concurrence: given closure the first premiss is plausible. nevertheless it is detestable. as I know that I have custodies while non cognizing that I am non a encephalon in a VAT. Some would accept the ASA. e. g. harmonizing to Tim Black. G. E. Moore would hold likely accepted it. Moore would likely accept ( 1 ) . ( 2 ) and ( 3 ) . and so claim that it follows from that ( 4 ) is true. that is he knows that he is non a encephalon in a vat5 . However. there were many who denied the closing rule. First I will see the counter-examples put frontward by Fred Dretske. Dretske tries to exemplify the failure of the closing rule by giving the illustration of a Zebra in a Zoo. In the ill-famed illustration Dretske makes two claims: ( 1 ) You know there’s a zebra in forepart of you. ( 2 ) You don’t know that it isn’t a smartly disguised mule. Dretske so explains:  «You have some general uniformities on which you rely. regularities to which you give look by such comments as.  «That isn’t really likely » or  «Why should the menagerie governments do that?  » †¦ But the inquiry here is now whether the option is plausible. non whether it is more or less plausible than that there are existent zebras in the pen. but whether you know that this alternate hypothesis is false. I don’t believe you do6 What Dretske tries to explicate is that cognition is an evidentiary province in which all relevant options are eliminated. Then he asserts the closing rule fails if the cognition P requires to except non all. but merely all relevant options to P. However Vogel finds the description of the state of affairs implausible. Given what Dretske has said in puting out the illustration. I think it is more sensible to reason that if you know ( 1 ) you know ( 2 ) every bit good. and closing is preserved after all7 He keeps explicating his place. in which he claims that if a belief is more plausible than its denial. a individual should be justified in accepting that belief. The ground you know that an animate being in the pen is non a cloaked mule ( if you do cognize it’s a zebra ) is that you have a true belief to that consequence backed up by good grounds. That grounds includes background information about the nature and map of menagerie. You know that zoos by and large exhibit echt specimens. and that it would be a great trade of problem to mask a mule and to replace it for a zebra†¦ If you did experience there was a opportunity that a switch had been made. you would hold ground to doubt that the animate being you see is a zebra. You would non cognize that it is a zebra. Vogel farther explains the defects of Dretske’s Zoo instance. by presenting the Car Theft instance. which I will analyse now. Car Larceny instance besides is widely counted as a counter-example to cloture rule Because you at the same clip cognize a proposition about where you auto is. but you fail to cognize another proposition which is a clear logical effect of the first. You know the proposition ( P ) My auto is now parked on Avenue A. You besides know that the proposition entails ( Q ) My auto has non been stolen and driven off from where it was parked Yet it seems you do now cognize q. despite the fact that it is for you a clear logical effect of p. which you do cognize. As you seemingly fail to cognize a clear logical effect of a proposition you do cognize. the closing rule is seemingly violated. Vogel claims that the auto larceny instance is indistinguishable to a lottery. Having your auto stolen is an unfortunate opposite number to winning the lottery †¦ Believing that your auto won’t be stolen is like believing you won’t win the lottery8 . Vogel claims that this illustration is much stronger ( it has a statistical footing in it instead than the Zebra instance. He claims that Zebra instance lacks the lottery component. so it is non clear why you do non cognize that the striped animate being before you isn’t a cloaked mule. Using this as a footing. Vogel explains that the Car Theft Case itself besides does non take to any decision sing the closing rule. To exemplify this. let’s return to the initial premises. As we can see there is no lottery component connected to being a encephalon in a vat . Its non a affair of chance. as we can non cognize if anyone is a encephalon in a VAT. or whether anyone can be a encephalon in a VAT at all. So the Car Theft counterexample fails every bit good. In decision. we can see that the closing rule. on which Rene Descartes Meditations are based is argued to be incorrect. nevertheless the counterexamples which foremost seem converting. such as the Car Theft Case and Zoo Zebra instance are doomed to neglect. Biblography DeRose. Keith. and Ted A. Warfield. Incredulity: A Contemporary Reader. New York: Oxford UP. 1999. Print. Epistemology ( redirected from Epistomology ) . TheFreeDictionary. com. N. p. . n. d. Web. 19 Jan. 2013. . Cesar francks. Richard. Descartes’ Meditations: A Reader’s Guide. London: Continuum. 2008. Print. Jonathan Vogel. Are There Counterexamples to the Closure Principle? N. p. . n. d. Web. 19 Jan. 2013. . Tim Black. What We Can Learn From The Skeptical Puzzle. N. p. . n. d. Web. 19 Jan. 2013. .

History of Western Art Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

History of Western Art - Essay Example This piece was made in 1656, and exhibits some similarities to â€Å"The Arnolfini Marriage.† Velasquez uses refined technicalities, and combines them with profound representations, in order to create a court picture. The first similarity that can be made of these two works of art is in their content. They have human subjects as the main characters, but also incorporate dogs in them. The intended audience for both works is supposedly human. In Las Meninas, the mirror in the background reveals two people. They seem to be approaching Margarita (La Infanta), and her maids of honour. In Arnolfini Wedding, the portrait is a visual record of an event that takes place inside the confines of a palace. The audience in this case, is also reflected in the convex mirror placed on the wall behind Arnolfini and his bride. The three people reflected in the mirror are thought to be the audience to the event. In this portrait, there is a dog that is at the feet of the bride. The styles of the two portraits are also closely related. The body expressions used by the subjects are illustrative of the message being passed. In Las Meninas, the maid attending to Margarita is leaning towards her, indicating servitude. The other maid of honour behind Margarita is in a curtsy stance, to welcome the approaching party. The persons approaching this group as seen from the reflection in the mirror seem to be Margarita’s parents. In the Arnolfini Wedding, the bride has her hand in the palm of the groom. This is taken to be a symbol of her giving herself to him. The lighting in the portraits is from natural sources. In Las Meninas, light comes in through the door that appears to be close to an opening letting in sunlight. There also seems to be a light source towards the direction that margarita has turned her head. In Arnolfini Wedding, natural light come in through the open window. There are minimal facial expressions in both portraits. Natural colours are used in the portraits with various shades black and white featuring most in Las Meninas. In Arnolfini Wedding, blue, green and a deep shade of red break this monotony. The main context in both portraits appears to be family. In Las Meninas, there is Margarita who is being served by her maids of honour. From the mirror, her parents are seen seemingly approaching the group. This is why Margaritas head is tilted towards the direction that other subjects in the portrait are looking. The royal family in this case is present in the room. The setting represents how a child of the royal family is attended to. In Arnolfini Wedding, the first step to setting up a family is taking place. This wedding is performed in the privacy of a chamber, and is witnessed by very few people. Having become married, the couple can start their family, as the bride seems to be pregnant. The elegantly dressed persons in the portrait are symbolic of the royal families in the renaissance period. Part Two Humanism in art refers to a cul tural movement that was characteristic of 14th to 16th century art. The focus of works in this period was on humans. This is what set it apart from the earlier centuries that were dominated by Christianity. Humanism offered a different perspective to life. Humanism was a movement that praised humans for their achievements rather than owing it all to divine grace (Gardner, Kleiner and Mamiya). The subjects of painting in this period shifted from religious symbols, to humans and

Public History Project Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Public History Project - Essay Example The paper will explore various aspects of this museum and its significance in providing to us the historical context of American Civil War in relation to abolition of slavery in America.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Freedom House Museum is situated in the state of Alexandria in United States. It is based on the building that was originally possessed by a trading firm that used to deal in slaves. It was back in 1800’s when this company came into being to fulfill the requirements of people who wanted to own slaves for money. The slaves were basically Blacks who were deprived of any right to claim their freedom and were thus treated as slaves by birth. It was the result of the lack of realization of basic human rights in that era. The slavery had been started from 1706 with the advent of trade with Africans. The Africans were forced to the other areas where people purchased them on account of money. However, the advent of domestic slavery took place in 1860’s where natives Amer icans were being held captives. Not only adult men and women were enslaved but children were also being kept as slaves.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The historians have narrated various incidents, which shed light on the type of treatment slaves had to go through. The people visiting Freedom House Museum can witness the artifacts providing an overview of the life of slaves before the start of Civil War in America. The people bought as slaves were treated worse than animals and were whipped often. There was no difference being considered among the enslavement of an adult and a child. In a book, ‘Slavery and the Making of America’, the author throws light on the pathetic life of slaves by narrating heartrending tales by slaves themselves. The book describes the torture the Black slaves had to undergo that was based on occasional beating, chaining down with other severe punishments that were being imposed on a minor mistake committed by the slave. The slaves were forced to do a ny kind of work their master assigned them and were not appreciated for their work. Instead, it was considered their duty to please their master without questioning anyone about their slavery.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The slaves were used for various purposes among which using them as laborers to work in fields or other jobs was a common practice by Americans. They were also made to construct buildings that were basically the earliest ones to be constructed. Moreover, there was a high demand of slaves for working in cotton fields which was met by the slave trading firms that provided domestic slaves on payment of money. Nearly 1000 slaves were being sold by a trading firm by Franklin and Armfield in a year. In the museum, there are numerous artifacts with pictures of the owners of slave trading firm. There are heavy iron shackles as well that were used to chain down the slaves. The area brings to one’s mind the sad aspects of history where the value of a human being was lesser than an animal.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  While going through the Freedom House Museum, one gets an insight into the history of US Civil War as well which was caused to end slavery from America. Abraham Lincoln once the president of America is credited with the abolition of slavery who initiated a campaign to end the enslavement of Blacks. A civil war came into place from 1861 to 1865 that resulted in the deaths of thousands of militants and innocent civilians. The Northern America succeeded in civil war that was

Motives and Incentives and Their Impact On the Performance of Essay

Motives and Incentives and Their Impact On the Performance of Employees In Government Hospitals within The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia - Essay Example This research will begin with the statement that the modern business environment poses a significant challenge for businesses at both the local and international level. The global crisis has made it increasingly vital for organizations to take measures to ensure the life of their businesses, overcoming both internal and external operation factors to achieve revenue growth and corporate performance. It is widely agreed that effective management of one of the most important factors for organizations to stay profitable in a highly competitive global economy. These factors of production are the three M’s: materials, machine, and manpower. It is the last of these, the human resource of a company, which poses the biggest challenge. A motivated employee is a valuable asset that brings tremendous worth to an organization. This research will try to look into the style and strategies of Al-Amal Hospital in Jeddah, the company in focus, in dealing with their workforce and how their workf orce stays motivated and happy with their job. It is the purpose of this paper to identify the motivational strategies and incentives that would improve employee behavior in the workplace. The focus of this study will be an evaluation of the practices of hospitals in Saudi Arabia, particularly Al-Amal Hospital in Jeddah. This will include an evaluation of the employee motivation and incentive strategies available to Al-Jamal Hospital, how they were applied in the organization and the effectiveness of these approaches. As the data collected for random sampling will be from a single company, this study will be demographically limited. The opinions, feelings, beliefs, and situation of participants may, therefore, be insufficient to totally represent the situations at other hospitals in Saudi Arabia or the feeling of their employees toward motivation and incentives. In terms of the secondary data from the various literature, studies, and researchers, there is a potential risk of relying upon information that cannot be proven correct within the context of this study, given that the results will not be derived not from data based on empirical study.

Benefits Of Running As Exercise English Language Essay

Benefits Of Running As Exercise English Language Essay Your top should be a wicking fabric, not cotton. Cotton will trap moisture, get heavy, chafe more. A wicking material will draw the moisture away from your skin, making it easier to get rid of excess heat and also offering some protection from rain. Examples include Nike Dri-fit, Adidas Climalite, Mizuno Drylite you get the idea. A lot of races will give running tops to entrants, so you dont need to buy too many. You will warm up pretty quickly when youre running, so for most of the year a shortsleeved top is fine. For your lower half shorts or running tights Running shorts should be light and also made of wicking material. If its colder, you could wear some running tights or running trousers Everyday tracksuit bottoms will have the problem that theyre not made of the right material, so theyll get heavy and cling when theyre wet, and be too hot when its warm. Socks dont have to be anything special. The Aldi and Lidl running socks are very popular, though some people swear by more expensive brands. The key consideration is protection from blisters, so you need socks that will help get rid of moisture, and fit well. Speaking of blisters, they are caused by a combination of three things: heat, moisture, and friction. Cut out one of those and you wonà ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã‚ ¢t get blisters. Heat is hard to eliminate completely, but make sure your shoes have some ventilation. Wicking socks will draw moisture away from your feet. Well-fitting shoes and socks will reduce friction. If you do get blisters, compeed plasters are the best treatment. Shoes Dont buy some runners because a friend wears them and says theyre good. There is no right pair of runners for everyone. The right pair for you depends on the shape of your foot your gait the amount of miles you intend to run in them your weight the conditions youll run in Go to a shop where you can get expert advice, not some random tracksuits-and-runners shop. Gait analysis is a useful tool, but the main thing is that the staff in the shop know what theyre talking about. Running in Winter Remember that you will generate heat from running, so you dont need to pile on too many layers. A long-sleeved top and running tights might be enough. You could add gloves, hats, and a jacket things that you can take off when youve warmed up. Reflective material is a priority in winter either bright clothes, or a reflective belt/jacket on top. If possible make sure that the reflectives are on the moving parts of your body, arms and legs. A headlamp is useful if youre not running in daylight, or under streetlamps. Getting started Not really equipment, but there are a few common mistakes people make when they start running they dash off on a run, get out of breath and shuffle home thinking they cant do it they train too much, get hurt, stop running they train too little, get out of the habit, stop running they settle on an easy routine, and never improve All of these problems have the same solution. Set yourself a target, and follow a proper training plan to get there. If you are just starting out, follow the couch25k running plan. This is a simple programme, that anyone can follow, works for any standard, and will get you to the point where you can run a 5k. Loads of people have followed it successfully. Its three sessions a week, no more than 30 minutes each session, which is enough to keep you improving but should be easy to fit into your life. (If you need to repeat a week, repeat a week. If youre having trouble completing the runs, slow down) Find a 5k a few months away, and make that your target. Having a target in mind will make it easier to stick with the programme. If youve run your first 5k and want to get faster, or run further, then set another target and follow a training plan. There are plans out there for every distance (the Hal Higdon ones are very beginner-friendly), and following a good plan will ensure you get the right mix of training and build consistently. Running further As you run longer distances, three issues will become more important hydration, nutrition, and chafing. Hydration If youre running for less than an hour, a drink of water before you start and more water when you finish is probably enough. If youre running for longer, you should plan to drink some water on your way around. Very roughly, a 500 mls bottle of water if youre running up to 2 hours, another if you run up to 3 hours. But this will depend on how fit you are, how fast youre running, how hot the day is, and your general condition. You should be well-hydrated before your run (straw-coloured urine), drink when youre thirsty on your run, and drink when you get back. If you weigh yourself immediately before and after your run, the weight loss you see is down to loss of water that will give you an idea of how much you should be drinking. In a race (over 5 miles distance), there should be water stations every 3 miles. On a training run, your options are to bring water with you (in a camelbak or waist pack), bring money with you and stop into a shop on the way, or go out beforehand and stash water along the route. Nutrition You will also have to think more about nutrition for longer runs. You have to make sure you have energy to run the best source is slow-release carbohydrates, such as porridge. But you dont want to run too soon after eating, because the food will sit uncomfortably in your stomach. Most people prefer not to run for an hour after eating something substantial, but everyone is different. Over longer distances, many people use energy gels. These are carbohydrate rich, and fairly easy to digest while running. There are a lot of different brands and flavours, but two basic types the standard gels, that should be washed down with water, and isogels, that can be taken on their own. Everyone has their own preferences, so try a few different types. And try them in a training run before using them in a race. Finally, remember that you put in is going to come out again, one way or another, so plan ahead. You dont want to have to make a pit-stop halfway through your run. Know what schedule your body is on, and what food your stomach will react to. Chafing As you run longer distances, youll notice you start to get sore in different places where theres a seam in your clothes, and around the nips (for men) Use Bodyglide (or vaseline, but its bad for your clothes?) around the affected areas. Use plasters, micropore tape, or nipguards to prevent the dreading bleeding nipples. Timing The cheapest option is to use a stopwatch to time your run, and use mapmyrun (or a similar site) to measure the distance. Next cheapest is a watch linked to a pedometer (the Nike + for example) The pedometer isnt great for accuracy basically you calibrate it by running a known distance, it says okay, that km took X steps and from then on calculates distance run by counting steps and comparing to X. Which is fine, as long as your stride length doesnt change. If you recalibrate regularly, it should be within 5-10% of your actual distance. When you upload your run it will tell you (roughly) how fast you were going at different stages. A GPS watch (such as a Garmin) uses a satellite signal to calculate your position and your position a second later and another second later and so on. It uses this data to calculate how far youve travelled, and how fast (and will usually have a range of other features such as programmed workouts, heart rate monitors, etc). They usually cost at least 150 quid. If you have an iPhone, there are several apps you can use to track your time and distance, such as Runmeter.

Of Mice and Men - 4th chapter Essay -- essays research papers

This passage comes from the fourth chapter in Of Mice and Men, by John Steinbeck. George and the other workers are â€Å"gone into town† (69). Lennie, Crooks and Candy are the only men remaining on the ranch. This excerpt characterizes Crooks and promotes the themes of loneliness and dreams. In addition, this passage characterizes Lennie and reinforces the theme of companionship. In this portion of the book, the author provides a precise characterization of Crooks. The stable buck takes â€Å"pleasure in his torture† (71) of Lennie. He suggests many scenarios that make Lennie miserable such as â€Å"Well s’pose, jus’s’pose he [George] don’t come back† (71) â€Å"s’pose he gets killed or hurt so he can’t come back† (71). Crooks’ suppositions are a sign of meanness, they demonstrate that loneliness has twisted his conscience. He also behaves this way because since â€Å"he ain’t got nobody† (72), he is jealous of Lennie’s friendship with George. Crooks suffers from loneliness. He has no one to turn to, and to be near him. He says it himself that â€Å"a guy needs somebody---to be near him† (72), or else â€Å"he ge...

Professional Development Essay

Nurses are the largest work force in the healthcare industry. The increasing demands for nurses opt to increase the quality of care given by these nurses. The Institute of Medicine (IOM, 2010) states that patients â€Å"deserve the care that centered on their unique needs and not what is most convenient for the health care professionals†. Nursing practice has changed significantly since the beginning of the profession secondary to increased demand for high quality care given and for the safety of the nurses and the patients. In order to overcome these challenges the Institute of Medicine (IOM) created a report that served as a foundation for the future and advancement of nursing. IOM reported that, â€Å"Nurses have the opportunity to play a central role in transforming the healthcare system to create a more accessible, high quality, and value-driven environment for patients†. (Institute of Medicine [IOM], 2010, pg. 85) The IOM report, †The Future of Nursing: Lead ing Change, Advancing Health†, emphasized on different topics with regards to the future of nursing especially the importance of nursing education, nursing practice and the roles of nurses as a leader in the healthcare system. The goal of nursing education is for the nurses to be prepared to face the increasing needs of a diverse population of patients and to deliver a safe and quality patient care. In addition, the transformation of nursing education is encouraged to prepare new nurses to work hand in hand with other healthcare professionals in different settings. These changes are needed because of technological advancements, older patient population and increasing complexity of the patient conditions. Care in the acute care setting and outside the hospital has become more complex as well. Nurses have to be trained on flexibility and ability to take in more roles than what is expected when they graduate nursing. With this note, advancement in the education curriculum and changes are needed to compensate for these demands. Nurses should be able to have evidence-based practice care, collaborative skills with other professionals, be proficient with the new technologies and even more skilled on the acute and chronic healthcare settings. Most hospitals are teaching hospitals and require more BSN graduate nurses  in their workforce. The IOM has a view to increase BSN nurses working in hospitals from 50% to 100%. In spite of this view, IOM set a goal of having BSN nursing percentage of 80% by 2020. This is â€Å"necessary to move the nursing workforce to an expanded set of competencies, especially in the domains of community and public health, leadership, systems improvement and change, research and health policy†. (IOM, 2010, pg. 173) In addition, having a BSN degree is a good foundation for nurses to advance to a higher education, APRNs and Doctorate levels, that will in turn advance nurses to research, faculty nurses to teach future nurses, ability to participate in creating healthcare policies and leadership roles. IOM also encourages having bridge programs from RN to BSN and having a residency program that will allow nurses to gain more skills, experience and knowledge and alleviate the stress around new nurses that are being thrown out of the real world without enough exposure and understanding of the profession. There are plenty of barriers in accomplishing these goals but with proper incentives, motivation and encouragement that are given to nurses, it is not impossible to have a better future in nursing education and have more educated and advanced nursing workforce in our society today. IOM also emphasized the importance of advancing the nursing practice to the community and not just concentrate in the acute care setting due to the increasing needs of the population and changes in the healthcare system. The outdated policies governing nursing scope of practice is a hindrance to the advancement of nursing practice and because of this patients are limited to access a better quality of care. IOM stressed on their report that a necessary alteration in nursing practice is needed to provide patient-centered care; deliver more primary as opposed to specialty care; deliver more care in the community rather than the acute care setting; provide seamless care; enable all health professionals to practice to the full extent of their education, training, and competencies; and foster inter-professional collaboration. (IOM, 2010, pg. 86-87) Nurses are encouraged to pursue their education to Advanced Practical Registered Nurses (APRN) due to a shortage of primary care professionals in the acute and mainly in the community healthcare setting. APRNs are knowledgeable, well trained and proficient enough to provide safe and high quality of care without the supervision of a primary doctor. IOM believes that changes in the regulations and expanding the scope of practice of nurses and of APRNs are necessary so that they can have the ability to practice and make decisions more independently. â€Å"The committee believes all health professionals should practice to the full extent of their education and training so that more patients may benefit†. (IOM, 2010, pg. 96) Again having bridge programs and residency programs for new nurses will help with the advancement of nursing practice. Redefining the roles and extending the scope of nursing practice is highly recommended by the IOM for the future of the nursing profession and to keep up with the evolution of the healthcare environment. Another vision that the IOM has is nurses as leaders in healthcare. It is time for nurses to move forward from bedside roles and start being active as leaders and partners with other healthcare professionals in delivering high quality care to patients. Together with the changes of nursing education and nursing practice, nurses as leaders are required to finally reach the goal of an advanced healthcare system. IOM’s vision â€Å"specifically challenges nurses to demonstrate full partnership with physicians and other healthcare professionals in redesigning U.S healthcare.† (Porer-O’Grady, 2011, pg. 33) in addition the IOM â€Å"report suggests that the nursing profession must produce leaders at every level of the system and accept key leadership positions in policy, politics, organizations, and practice.† (Porer-O’Grady, 2011, pg. 33) Today’s advancements in technology, nurses have an important role in research and they assist in developing evidence-based practice care to maintain safety. Nurses are the main caregivers and they understand very well the healthcare process. Nurses also play a vital role in delivering quality patient care through facilitation, coordination and making sure everything is at ease. So it is imperative that nurses be involved in policy making and provide strategies to improve care delivery and ensure quality  care. With these expectations put into nurses, it is every nurse’s responsibility to advance in their career, through education, be very well rounded with competencies and be active partners and be future leaders in the healthcare system. In conclusion, IOM has a very broad insight and goals with regards to the future of nursing. In order to achieve these goals, the importance of advancing nursing education and practice are emphasized as well as having more nursing leaders in the healthcare system. Having more BSN graduate nurses in the acute care settings and having more APRNs extending their services to the community is going to facilitate the advancement that the IOM views. Changing policies and extending the scope of practice for nurses to avoid limiting their abilities to practice and taking advantage of the nurse’s full capabilities is another goal that the IOM envisions. Lastly, nurses are seen more involved as leaders for a successful reform and in turn provide a better quality and safe care to patients. References Porer-O’Grady, T. (2011). Future of Nursing Special:Leadership at All Levels. Nursing Management, 32-37. Retrieved from http://www.nursingcenter.com/lnc/journalarticle?Article_ID=1163290 The future of nursing: leading change, advancing health. (2010). Washington, D.C.: The National Academies Press. Retrieved from http://www.nap.edu/catalog.php?record_id=12956

International Legal and Ethical Issues Essay

A biotechnology company based in Candore called Gentura is contemplating entering into a partnership with a pharmaceutical company based in Florida called CadMex. Candore is a small dictatorship country. Gentura started their company by manufacturing enzymes and has grown into a biotechnology company with a focus on biopharmaceutical products. ProPez is an innovative anti-diabetes agent recently developed by Gentura. The company believes ProPez’s marketing potential will be massive. Because Gentura has no marketing or manufacturing resources, they began discussing a possible partnership with CadMex. Resolving Legal Disputes in International Transactions The choice of law determines the applicable jurisdiction if a dispute should arise between the two contracting parties. The companies have an option of litigation or using an alternative dispute resolution (ADRs). Mediation or arbitration is preferable over litigation because the costs are much lower and less time consuming. CadMex and Gentura decided international commercial arbitration would be their best route. The two parties will design a written agreement as a guide for the arbitrator to follow and know what his or her powers will consist of. An arbitrator from a neutral country will enhance the fairness of the decision. He or she has the same powers as courts do but may ask for assistance from the court in some instances. Considerations of Taking Legal Action Against a Foreign Business Partner When negotiating contracts one must consider the choices of law clauses. CadMex selected the Candore Regulations for Technology Import Contract with will benefit CadMex in that Candore will most likely enforce their own regulations. More considerations should be addressed, such as policies of the foreign government, cultural differences, and employees. These will greatly affect the way businesses conduct themselves in different countries. Sublicensing Agreements Sublicensing probably will work well for CadMex, but there are more factors to consider, such as the length and extreme costs for complying with the standards of production after sublicensing. This will keep CadMex’s goodwill and meet the requirements of control for Candore. CadMex would prefer a generic brand, but the Candorean authorities would probability reject it because of the low cost of generics. Which Customs Should Prevail if Conflicts Prevails Abroad There is a conflict with the different laws when mediation or arbitration break down, companies break contracts, or conflict intensifies. [Insert comma here to set off the adjective phrase beginning with â€Å"according to† (unless it is a dependent phrase)] According to the principles of federal supremacy the United States Constitution and treaties rule supreme and take precedence over local laws and customs. Comparing Issues in Simulation to Issues Discussed in Week One Readings These issues compare to procedural law because laws provide a framework and makes rules for seeking existing rights. International companies could also use common law with the courts making the laws based on past cases that have facts that may be similar. Domestic and international companies should resolve disputes fairly. This means to take both sides into account and judgment should be free from any form of bias.

Ethics of Means and Ends essayEssay Writing Service

Ethics of Means and Ends essayEssay Writing Service Ethics of Means and Ends essay Ethics of Means and Ends essayThe ethical approach concerning means and ends that I expect to apply in my role as a criminal justice professional can be explained in the following way:The ethical approach concerning means and ends is the so-called ethical doctrine of the ends justifying the means. In the criminal justice system, the morality of means and ends refers to the moral use of power in different situations. The major goal of the criminal justice system is to prevent people from committing crimes by threatening them with different kinds of punishment. A criminal justice professional should be focused on providing social control and preventing crimes. In some cases, it is acceptable for a criminal justice professional to use bad means in order to attain good ends. As a matter of fact, in the American criminal justice system, the ends of justice fail to justify the means of achieving it. For example, it is not allowed to use violence in the form of torture toward suspects.As a criminal justice professional, I will effectively use ethical approach concerning means and ends in my future practice. I realize that I should not violate the laws of criminal procedure. The ethical approach will help me to be engaged in moral behavior, overcoming any obstacles put by the criminal justice system. I realize that I should deal with a conflict that exists between the means and ends of justice. As a representative of the criminal justice, I am obliged to the means of justice embodied in the legal process. At the same time, I am obliged to the ends of justice, providing social security. I should be focused on the noble cause in my actions and decisions, doing good for all the members of society I live in. I will have to weigh the legality of my actions, decisions and behaviors against the so-called good end of arresting a criminal.

Will American Factories Ever Resurface Term Paper

Will American Factories Ever Resurface - Term Paper Example There is a lot of heated discussion and debate over the issue of outsourcing. Proponents insist that it is the best thing for the US economy, opponents contend that it is not so, and this is causing massive employment. Advocates are of the view that outsourcing will save money for corporations, will enable new possibilities and would lead to Americans to get their hands on executive jobs. They feel that outsourcing exercise brings significant advantages to the American economy by making imports cheaper and exports more costly for other counties. Opponents of Outsourcing: Those who are not in favor outsourcing contend that hiring people from other countries has a negative effect on the US economy and deprives hundreds of thousands of workers in the US especially skilled and semi-skilled workers. Poor Americans who are willing to do jobs that do not need many skills, are finding it very cumbersome to get jobs, and poverty isn’t really helping help the US economy, instead its red ucing consumer spending considerably and also the amount of tax collections. They say that the lost jobs will never be recovered and this is a permanent loss to the American and the economy. This does seem valid and everyone knows that outsourcing does cause people to be jobless in America, especially such jobs that have very few or no qualifications, education or technical skills, because job loss is not only confined to people limited skills, but also jobs of skilled nature are now outsourced to other countries where manpower is cheaper. The reason that outsourcing hurts the US economy is quite controversial. For those who support outsourcing for political reasons, outsourcing will on the whole have a constructive effect on the American economy, since it is cheaper and saves a lot of money for corporations, opens up advantageous chances for greater free enterprise in the US, and would have the maximum number of Americans working at higher level executive jobs. Opponents are adaman t that the hiring of overseas workers at jobs that can do done by semi-skilled or skilled laborers. The way that companies that outsource save taxes, outsourcing will diminish taxes paid by corporation and therefore also decrease spending by the governments, both federal and state. Both sides on this issue have some valid arguments. Outsourcing has become the major cause of joblessness in America and it greatly affects people with only limited skills. On the other hand the fact that tons of skilled labor jobs are being offered to foreign countries can also not be ruled out. Benefits of Outsourcing: People who favor outsourcing say that reducing the operating expenses of corporations leads to creation of new and better jobs. There are many government departments and agencies that outsource their work load, enabling them to save tons of dollars, which benefits the US economy and reduces federal spending. This is for those who state that paying workers less wagers would mean the compan ies would be able to produce more products with considerably less expenditure and this saving could be passed on to customers. Lower prices would enable more consumers spending, and would enable companies to generate more jobs for employees working in America as they usually pay those workers less who work outside the States. Outsourcing is a very controversial issue, but it is an issue all the same. Virtually no one agrees that outsourcing can be completely stopped (Wise Geek 2012). Many US citizens feel that companies are dodging taxes and cheating the US government of revenues and suggest companies should be taxed more for outsourcing, and given added incentives if they decide to keep their worker base in

The impact of the boxer rebellion Research Paper

The impact of the boxer rebellion - Research Paper Example Their main intention was to end the honors given to foreigners by the Ch’ing Dynasty and was later joined by Empress Dowager and other local municipalities. It was unfortunate that the people whom the Boxers’ fought treated the Chinese citizens like the second class citizens in their own land. The Boxers opted to destroy the properties of the foreigners since apart from being the richest people in the town were given lots of freedom by the dynasty. The uprising became very prevalent and spread all over China and it prompted them to start confronting Christians and non-Chinese at around 1900. Anyone who tried to take relief to that country particularly the international reliefs was attacked by the Boxers in the pretense that foreigners wanted a return of the emperor (Thompson 2-6). This writing analyses some of the impacts of Boxer rebellion. Although the Boxer rebellion did not succeed in their mission, it should be noted that they did a lot to stir up China’s na tionwide pride. The Boxers could not fight all the foreign powers because they angered almost all the foreign powers that were more superior to the boxers such as the Allied Expedition. The boxers defeat was also contributed by the fact that they were disorganized and therefore could not fight for their country and defend it properly. The Boxers only believed in rituals and martial arts which could not help them fight against the superior weapons. Boxers also did not have popular backing from within China and this too made them fail at long last (Thompson 2-6). The Boxers had very serious impacts politically on China especially as far as violation of the national right is concerned. The internal administration and security as well as the national defense were greatly weakened and stunned particularly the demands and the actions of the Boxers. The rebellion which was ended by signing of treaty made most of the Chinese people to have problem with their government (Joseph 43-47). The Q ing Empire continued to rule China since the dynasty was not very much affected by the rebels and even the foreign troops. Even the internal administration did not have power to control the Boxers and therefore they used that as justification to return to power. It was also not possible to fight against the foreigners do to the existing Qing court and this prompted the need to have institutional reforms. The government found it very necessary to come up with reforms that could help it in fighting foreign countries and this led to the begging of reform institutions after a long time of promise by the empire. The government generally had very little control over the provinces and her people at large and this made it very much unlikely to come up with reforms (Joseph 43-47). Socially and economically, China was very much affected such as the evolution of anti-Machu feelings. There was public outcry from everywhere in China when the administration levied more taxes on her people as a wa y of paying for hefty security. There was also a lot of corruption within the governments amid high taxes and this made the public to think that China could only be salvaged via revolution but not reforms (Bickers 115-120). Public were also irritated by the fact that the government could not defend their land from the foreign forces and these series of blames led to the fall of Qing reign. The fall of the regime was stirred

A critical discussion of the role of organisational memory on Essay

A critical discussion of the role of organisational memory on innovation - Essay Example ith implementation; the more innovative a function, the thinner the time gap between creating and executing, planning and creating, or conceptualizing and applying. Researchers have identified innovation as a variation from current customs or understanding (Mooner & Miner, 1997, p. 95). As advancement involves some level of design or plan, it is believed that is a type of innovation. Nonetheless, it is just one type of innovation. For instance, if an organization innovates a fresh technique to store chemicals by analyzing its requirements, collecting details, planning the fresh storage utility, receiving proposals, and ultimately creating it, the organization has innovated. In addition, innovative activities may involve quite different levels of improvement; a very huge percentage or comparatively tiny percentage of the activities may be novel. Some level of innovation is necessary for an activity to meet the chronological order classification due to its stress on plan or design of activity. These concerns propose a fine connection between innovation and organizational memory. On the other hand, they as well mean that treating them as the same could decrease the capability to appreciate the particular concerns of chronological order by confusing level of organizational memory with level of innovation. Clarifying these differences highlights the notion that the â€Å"proposed definition makes no predictions or assumptions in and of itself regarding the consequences of innovation† Mooner and Miner, 1997, p. 96). This makes innovation more helpful as a study field, because it is then possible to hypothesize as well as check ideas regarding the situations in which innovation is and is not important. It is argued here that organizational memory signifies one of the major determinants of the environment of innovative endings. One thing that is clear with respect to organizational innovation is the effect of earlier practices as well as understanding of the innovating

First-order logic Essay Example for Free

First-order logic Essay 1. (Philosophy) the academic discipline concerned with making explicit the nature and significance of ordinary and scientific beliefs and investigating the intelligibility of concepts by means of rational argument concerning their presuppositions, implications, and interrelationships; in particular, the rational investigation of the nature and structure of reality (metaphysics), the resources and limits of knowledge (epistemology), the principles and import of moral judgment (ethics), and the relationship between language and reality (semantics) 2. (Philosophy) the particular doctrines relating to these issues of some specific individual or school the philosophy of Descartes 3. (Philosophy) the critical study of the basic principles and concepts of a discipline the philosophy of law 4. (Literary Literary Critical Terms) Archaic or literary the investigation of natural phenomena, esp alchemy, astrology, and astronomy 5. any system of belief, values, or tenets 6. a personal outlook or viewpoint 7. serenity of temper phi†¢los†¢o†¢phy (f l? s ? fi) n. , pl. -phies. 1. the rational investigation of the truths and principles of being, knowledge, or conduct. 2. a system of philosophical doctrine: the philosophy of Spinoza. 3. the critical study of the basic principles and concepts of a particular branch of knowledge: the philosophy of science. 4. a system of principles for guidance in practical affairs: a philosophy of life. 5. a calm or philosophical attitude. Philosophy is the study of general and fundamental problems, such as those connected with reality, existence, knowledge, values, reason,mind, and language. Philosophy is distinguished from other ways of addressing such problems by its critical, generally systematic approach and its reliance on rational argument. [3] In more casual speech, by extension, philosophy can refer to the most basic beliefs, concepts, and attitudes of an individual or group. The word philosophy comes from the Ancient Greek (philosophia), which literally means love of wisdom. [5][6][7] The introduction of the terms philosopher and philosophy has been ascribed to the Greek thinker Pythagoras. [8] https://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Philosophy http://www. thefreedictionary. com/philosophy Branches of Philosophy Main branches of philosophy Traditionally, there are five main branches of philosophy. They are: †¢ Metaphysics, which deals with the fundamental questions of reality. †¢ Epistemology, which deals with our concept of knowledge, how we learn and what we can know. †¢ Logic, which studies the rules of valid reasoning and argumentation †¢ Ethics, or moral philosophy, which is concerned with human values and how individuals should act. †¢ Aesthetics or esthetics, which deals with the notion of beauty and the philosophy of art. http://www. philosophy-index. com/philosophy/branches/ Aesthetics Aesthetics is the area of philosophy which covers the concepts of beauty and art. â€Å"Beauty is in the eye of the beholder† There are two basic standings on the nature of beauty: objective and subjective judgement. Subjective judgement of beauty suggests that beauty is not the same to everyone — that which aesthetically pleases the observer is beautiful (to the observer). Alternatively, those partial to the objective description of beauty try to measaure it. They suggest that certain properties of an object create an inherent beauty — such as symmetry and balance. Both Plato and Aristotlesupported the objective judgement. Some, such as Immanuel Kant, took a middle path, holding that beauty is of a subjective nature, but there are qualities of beauty which have universal validity. Classical and Modern Aesthetics The classical concepts behind aesthetics saw beauty in nature, and that art should mimic those qualities found in nature. AristotlesPoetics describes this idea, which he develops from Platos teachings. Modern aesthetic ideas, including those of Kant, stress the creative and symbolic side of art — that nature does not always have to guide art for it to be beautiful. Epistemology Epistemology is the area of philosophy that is concerned with knowledge. The main concerns of epistemology are the definition of knowledge, the sources of knowledge (innate ideas, experience, etc. ), the process of acquiring knowledge and the limits of knowledge. Epistemology considers that knowledge can be obtained throughexperience and/or reason. Defining Knowledge A primary concern of epistemology is the very definition of knowledge itself. The traditional definition, since Plato, is that knowledge is justified true belief, but recent evaluations of the concept have shown supposed counterexamples to this definition. In order to fully explore the nature of knowledge and how we come to know things, the various conceptions of what knowledge is must first be understood. Definition of knowledge Sources of Knowledge The sources of knowledge must also be considered. Perception, reason, memory, testimony, introspection and innate ideas are all supposed sources of knowledge. Scepticism There also seems to be reason to doubt each of these sources of knowledge. Could it be that all knowledge is fallible? If that is the case, do we really know anything? This is the central question to the problem of scepticism. Ethics Ethics or moral philosophy is the branch of philosophy concerned with human conduct and its moral value. There are generally three branches of ethics: †¢ Meta-ethics, which is concerned with questions about what whether or not morality exists, and what it consists of if it does; †¢ Normative ethics, which is concerned with how moral values should be developed; and †¢ Applied ethics, which deals with how moral values can be applied to specific cases. Logic Logic is the systematic process of valid reasoning through inference — deriving conclusions from information that is known to be true. It is the area of philosophy that is concerned with the laws of valid reasoning. Symbolic Logic Symbolic logic is the method of representing logical expressions through the use of symbols and variables, rather than in ordinary language. This has the benefit of removing the ambiguity that normally accompanies ordinary languages, such as English, and allows easier operation. There are many systems of symbolic logic, such as classical propositional logic, first-order logic and modal logic. Each may have seperate symbols, or exclude the use of certain symbols. Logical Symbols The following table presents several logical symbols, their name and meaning, and any relevant notes. The name of the symbol (under â€Å"meaning† links to a page explaining the symbol or term and its use). Note that different symbols have been used by different logicians and systems of logic. For the sake of clarity, this site consistently uses the symbols in the left column, while the â€Å"Notes† column may indicate other commonly-used symbols. |Symbol |Meaning |Notes | |Operators (Connectives) | | ¬ |negation (NOT) |The tilde ( ? ) is also often used. | |?|conjunction (AND) |The ampersand ( ) or dot (  · ) are also often used. | |? |disjunction (OR) | This is the inclusive disjunction, equivalent to and/or in English. | |? |exclusive disjunction (XOR) |? means that only one of the connected propositions is true, equivalent to either†¦or. Sometimes ? is | | | |used. | || |alternative denial(NAND) |Means â€Å"not both†. Sometimes written as ^ | |v |joint denial (NOR) |Means â€Å"neither/nor†. | | |conditional(if/then) |Many logicians use the symbol? instead. This is also known as material implication. | |- |biconditional (iff) |Means â€Å"if and only if† ? is sometimes used, but this site reserves that symbol for equivalence. | |Quantifiers | |? |universal quantifier |Means â€Å"for all†, so ? xPx means that Px is true for every x. | |? |existential quantifier |Means â€Å"there exists†, so ? xPxmeans that Px is true for at least one x. | |Relations | |? |implication |? ? ? means that ? follows from? | |? |equivalence |Also ?. Equivalence is two-way implication, so ? ? ? means? [pic] ? and ? [pic] ?. | |? |provability |Shows provable inference. ? [pic] ? means that from ? we can prove that ?. | |? |therefore |Used to signify the conclusion of an argument. Usually taken to mean implication, but often used to | | | |present arguments in which the premises do not deductively imply the conclusion. | |? |forces |A relationship between possible worlds and sentences in modal logic. | |Truth-Values | |? |tautology |May be used to replace any tautologous (always true) formula. | |? |contradiction |May be used to replace any contradictory (always false) formula. Sometimes â€Å"F† is used. | |Parentheses | |( ) |parentheses |Used to group expressions to show precedence of operations. Square brackets [ ] are sometimes used to | | | |clarify groupings. | |Set Theory | |?. |membership |Denotes membership in a set. Ifa ? ?, then a is a member (or an element) of set ?. | |? |union |Used to join sets. If S and T are sets of formula, S ? T is a set containing all members of both. | |? |intersection |The overlap between sets. If S and T are sets of formula, S ? Tis a set containing those elemenets that | | | |are members of both. | |? |subset |A subset is a set containing some or all elements of another set. | |? |proper subset |A proper subset contains some, but not all, elements of another set. | |= |set equality |Two sets are equal if they contain exactly the same elements. | |? |absolute complement |? (S) is the set of all things that are not in the set S. Sometimes written as C(S), S or SC. | |- |relative complement |T S is the set of all elements in T that are not also in S. Sometimes written as T \ S. | |? |empty set |The set containing no elements. | |Modalities | |? |necessarily |Used only in modal logic systems. Sometimes expressed as [] where the symbol is unavailable. | |? |possibly |Used only in modal logic systems. Sometimes expressed as where the symbol is unavailable. | Propositions, Variables and Non-Logical Symbols. The use of variables in logic varies depending on the system and the author of the logic being presented. However, some common uses have emerged. For the sake of clarity, this site will use the system defined below. |Symbol |Meaning |Notes | |A, B, C †¦ Z |propositions |Uppercase Roman letters signify individual propositions. For example, P may symbolize the proposition â€Å"Pat is | | | |ridiculous†. P and Q are traditionally used in most examples. | |? , ? , ? †¦ ? |formulae |Lowercase Greek letters signify formulae, which may be themselves a proposition (P), a formula (P ?Q) or several | | | |connected formulae (? ? ? ). | |x, y, z |variables | Lowercase Roman letters towards the end of the alphabet are used to signify variables. In logical systems, these | | | |are usually coupled with a quantifier, ? or ? , in order to signify some or all of some unspecified subject or | | | |object. By convention, these begin with x, but any other letter may be used if needed, so long as they are defined | | | |as a variable by a quantifier. | |a, b, c, †¦ z |constants |Lowercase Roman letters, when not assigned by a quantifier, signifiy a constant, usually a proper noun. For | | | |instance, the letter â€Å"j† may be used to signify â€Å"Jerry†. Constants are given a meaning before they are used in | | | |logical expressions. | |Ax, Bx †¦ Zx |predicate symbols |Uppercase Roman letters appear again to indicate predicate relationships between variables and/or constants, | | | |coupled with one or more variable places which may be filled by variables or constants. For instance, we may | | | |definite the relation â€Å"x is green† as Gx, and â€Å"x likes y† as Lxy. To differentiate them from propositions, they are| | | |often presented in italics, so while P may be a proposition, Px is a predicate relation for x. Predicate symbols | | | |are non-logical — they describe relations but have neither operational function nor truth value in themselves. | |? , ? , †¦ ? |sets of formulae |Uppercase Greek letters are used, by convention, to refer to sets of formulae. ? is usually used to represent the | | | |first site, since it is the first that does not look like Roman letters. (For instance, the uppercase Alpha (? ) | | | |looks identical to the Roman letter â€Å"A†) | |? , ? , †¦ ? |possible worlds |In modal logic, uppercase greek letters are also used to represent possible worlds. Alternatively, an uppercase W | | | |with a subscript numeral is sometimes used, representing worlds as W0, W1, and so on. | |{ } |sets |Curly brackets are generally used when detailing the contents of a set, such as a set of formulae, or a set of | | | |possible worlds in modal logic. For instance, ? = { ? , ? , ? , ? } | Systems of Logic A system of logic, also known as a logical calculus, or simply a logic, is a method by which to express and evaluate information in a logical manner. Formal Language and Rules of Inference Logical systems consist of a formal language of symbolic logic. This language defines: †¢ A set of symbols to refer to formulae, including propositions and operators. †¢ Grammar, that is rules of well-formation, on how formulae must be expressed. The formal language of a system consists of, on one hand, the syntax of the language, and on the other, a method for expressing semantics within the system. The semantics of a system may be as simple as assigning truth-value to propositions and formulae, or more complicated, using predicate symbols to define non-logical relationships between formulae. Systems also consist of rules of inference, which determine how expressions in the language may be used to draw new, previously unstated conclusions. Common Systems of Logic †¢ Classical Logics, the most common form of logical expression, including: o Aristotelian logic o Propositional logic o First-order logic o Second-order logic o Higher-order logics †¢ Contextual Logics, which deal with non-truth-functionaloperators, and include: o Modal Logic, which deals with modal operators neccessarily and possibly. o Epistemic Logic, which reasons about knowledge o Doxastic Logic, which reasons about belief. o Deontic Logic, which reasons about ethical obligation and permissibility o Temporal Logic, which reasons about propositions over time †¢ Free Logic, which rejects the assumption that the domain is non-empty, that something exists †¢ Fuzzy Logic, which rejects the law of the excluded middle †¢ Intuitionistic Logic, which redefines truth values based on proof †¢ Paraconsistent Logic, which allows contradictions without entailment of any other formulae †¢ Relevance Logic, which requires a stronger link of relevance between premises and conclusion Metaphysics Metaphysics is the area of philosophy which deals with the ultimate nature of reality. Metaphysics can emcompass large areas of philosophy, and most other philosophical schools turn back to it for basic definition. In that respect, the term metaphysics is a broad one, encompassing the philosophical ideas of cosmology and ontology. Metaphysics or First Philosophy The term â€Å"metaphysics† comes from Greek, meaning â€Å"after the Physics†. Although the term metaphysics generally makes sense in the way that it partially refers to things outisde of and beyond the natural sciences, this is not the origin of the term (as opposted to, say, meta-ethics, which refers to the nature of ethics itself). Instead, the term was used by later editors of Aristotle. Aristotle had written several books on matter and physics, and followed those volumes with work on ontology, and other broad subjects. These editors referred to them as â€Å"the books that came after the books on physics† or â€Å"metaphysics†. Aristotle himself refers to metaphysics as â€Å"first philosophy†. This term was also used by some later philosophers, such as Descartes, whose primary work on the subject of metaphysics is calledMeditations on First Philosophy. Branches of Metaphysics The main branches of metaphysics are: †¢ Ontology †¢ Cosmology Ontology is a branch of metaphysics which studies being. Ontology is concerned with the ultimate nature of being, and of all reality in general. The process of studying ontology generally consists of describing being as well as determining how reality may be organized and categorized, and how different types of beings relate to one another. The term â€Å"an ontology† refers to the things counted as being in a metaphysical system. Generally, an ontology is a list of things that exist — the â€Å"furniture of the universe† as it is sometimes put. Differences in ontology among philosophers generally deal with whether or not there are non-physical entities, and whether those things can be counted as being, existing, both or neither. Examples of candidates for ontological status as non-physical being include the mind, mathematical objects and universals. Ontologists Philosophers who do work on ontology are referred to asontologists. The following are some of the prominent ontologists discussed on this site: †¢ Aristotle †¢ Saint Anselm †¢ Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel †¢ Martin Heidegger. †¢ Immanuel Kant †¢ Plato †¢ W. V. O. Quine †¢ Jean-Paul Sartre †¢ Baruch Spinoza Cosmology Cosmology is the area of metaphysics and science that studies the origin, evolution and nature of the universe. Cosmology is concerned with the contents and astrophysical phenomena of space and time, as well as their origin and progression. Although cosmology is most often concerned with physics and astronomy in the scientific world, it directly relates to a number of philosophical and theological views. The scientific theories related to . While ontology studies the nature of being and reality itself, cosmology is the study of those things that are in reality, and how they, and perhaps reality, came to be. Divisions of Philosophy Abstract: Philosophy, philosophical inquiry, and the main branches of philosophy are characterized. 1. What is Philosophy? 1. The derivation of the word philosophy from the Greek is suggested by the following words and word-fragments. ? philo—love of, affinity for, liking of ? philander—to engage in love affairs frivolously ? philanthropy—love of mankind in general ? philately—postage stamps hobby ? phile—(as in anglophile) one having a love for ? philology—having a liking for words ? sophos—wisdom ? sophist—lit. one who loves knowledge ? sophomore—wise and moros—foolish;i. e. one who thinks he knows many things ? sophisticated—one who is knowledgeable 2. A suggested definition for our beginning study is as follows. Philosophy is the systematic inquiry into the principles and presuppositions of any field of study. ? From a psychological point of view, philosophy is an attitude, an approach, or a calling to answer or to ask, or even to comment upon certain  peculiar problems (i. e. , specifically the kinds of problems usually relegated to the main branches discussed below in Section II). ? There is, perhaps, no one single sense of the word philosophy. Eventually many writers abandon the attempt to define philosophy and, instead, turn to the kinds of things philosophers do. ? What is involved in the study of philosophy involves is described by the London Times in an article dealing with the 20th World Congress of Philosophy: The great virtue of philosophy is that it teaches not what to think, but how to think. It is the study of meaning, of the principles underlying conduct, thought and knowledge. The skills it hones are the ability to analyse, to question orthodoxies and to express things clearly. However arcane some philosophical texts may be †¦ the ability to formulate questions and follow arguments is the essence of education. 1. The Main Branches of Philosophy are divided as to the nature of the questions asked in each area. The integrity of these divisions cannot be rigidly maintained, for one area overlaps into the others. 1. Axiology: the study of value; the investigation of its nature, criteria, and metaphysical status. More often than not, the term value theory is used instead of axiology in contemporary discussions even though the term â€Å"theory of value† is used with respect to the value or price of goods and services in economics. ? Some significant questions in axiology include the following: 1. Nature of value: is value a fulfillment of desire, a pleasure, a preference, a behavioral disposition, or simply a human interest of some kind? 2. Criteria of value: de gustibus non (est) disputandum (i. e. , (â€Å"theres no accounting for tastes†) or do objective standards apply? 3. Status of value: how are values related to (scientific) facts? What ultimate worth, if any, do human values have? ? Axiology is usually divided into two main parts. 1. Ethics: the study of values in human behavior or the study of moral problems: e. g. , (1) the rightness and wrongness of actions, (2) the kinds of things which are good or desirable, and (3) whether actions are blameworthy or praiseworthy. 1. Consider this example analyzed by J.O. Urmson in his well-known essay, Saints and Heroes: We may imagine a squad of soldiers to be practicing the throwing of live hand grenades; a grenade slips from the hand of one of them and rolls on the ground near the squad; one of them sacrifices his life by throwing himself on the grenade and protecting his comrades with his own body. It is quite unreasonable to suppose that such a man must be impelled by the sort of emotion that he might be impelled by if his best friend were in the squad. 2. Did the soldier who threw himself on the grenade do the right thing? If he did not cover the grenade, several soldiers might be injured or be killed. His action probably saved lives; certainly an action which saves lives is a morally correct action. One might even be inclined to conclude that saving lives is a duty. But if this were so, wouldnt each of the soldiers have the moral obligation or duty to save his comrades? Would we thereby expect each of the soldiers to vie for the opportunity to cover the grenade? 1. ?sthetics: the study of value in the arts or the inquiry into feelings, judgments, or standards of beauty and related concepts. Philosophy of art is concerned with judgments of sense, taste, and emotion. 1. E. g. , Is art an intellectual or representational activity? What would the realistic representations in pop art represent? Does art represent sensible objects or ideal objects? 2. Is artistic value objective? Is it merely coincidental that many forms in architecture and painting seem to illustrate mathematical principles? Are there standards of taste? 3. Is there a clear distinction between art and reality? 1. Epistemology: the study of knowledge. In particular, epistemology is the study of the nature, scope, and limits of human knowledge. ? Epistemology investigates the origin, structure, methods, and integrity of knowledge. ? Consider the degree of truth of the statement, The earth is round. Does its truth depend upon the context in which the statement is uttered? For example, this statement can be successively more accurately translated as †¦ 1. The earth is spherical 2. The earth is an oblate spheroid (i. e. , flattened at the poles). 3. But what about the Himalayas and the Marianas Trench? Even if we surveyed exactly the shape of the earth, our process of surveying would alter the surface by the footprints left and the impressions of the survey stakes and instruments. Hence, the exact shape of the earth cannot be known. Every rain shower changes the shape. 4. (Note here as well the implications for skepticism and relativism: simply because we cannot exactly describe the exact shape of the earth, the conclusion does not logically follow that the earth does not have a shape. ) ? Furthermore, consider two well-known problems in epistemology: 1. Russells Five-Minute-World Hypothesis: Suppose the earth were created five minutes ago, complete with memory images, history books, records, etc. , how could we ever know of it? As Russell wrote in The Analysis of Mind, There is no logical impossibility in the hypothesis that the world sprang into being five minutes ago, exactly as it then was, with a population that remembered a wholly unreal past. There is no logically necessary connection between events at different times; therefore nothing that is happening now or will happen in the future can disprove the hypothesis that the world began five minutes ago. For example, an omnipotent God could create the world with all the memories, historical records, and so forth five minutes ago. Any evidence to the contrary would be evidence created by God five minutes ago. (Q. v. , the Omphalos hypothesis. ) 2. Suppose everything in the universe (including all spatial relations) were to expand uniformly a thousand times larger. How could we ever know it? A moments thought reveals that the mass of objects increases by the cube whereas the distance among them increases linearly. Hence, if such an expansion were possible, changes in the measurement of gravity and the speed of light would be evident, if, indeed, life would be possible. 3. Russells Five-Minute-World Hypothesis is a philosophical problem; the impossibility of the objects in the universe expanding is a scientific problem since the latter problem can, in fact, be answered by principles of elementary physics. 1. Ontology or Metaphysics: the study of what is really real. Metaphysics deals with the so-called first principles of the natural order and the ultimate generalizations available to the human intellect. Specifically, ontology seeks to indentify and establish the relationships between the categories, if any, of the types of existent things. ? What kinds of things exist? Do only particular things exist or do general things also exist? How is existence possible? Questions as to identity and change of objects—are you the same person you were as a baby? as of yesterday? as of a moment ago? ? How do ideas exist if they have no size, shape, or color? (My idea of the Empire State Building is quite as small or as large as my idea of a book. I. e., an idea is not extended in space. ) What is space? What is time? ? E. g. , Consider the truths of mathematics: in what manner do geometric figures exist? Are points, lines, or planes real or not? Of what are they made? ? What is spirit? or soul? or matter? space? Are they made up of the same sort of stuff? ? When, if ever, are events necessary? Under what conditions are they possible? 1. Further characteristics of philosophy and examples of philosophical problems are discussed in the next tutorial. http://philosophy. lander. edu/intro/what. shtml.